Live imaging of cell protrusive activity, and extracellular matrix assembly and remodeling during morphogenesis in the frog, Xenopus laevis

Embryonic tissue explants develop complex fibrils

To visualize fibril dynamics within a live tissue we modified previous explant preparations and visualization techniques (DeSimone et al., 2007). Histological analysis had identified a phase of rapid assembly and remodeling of a fibronectin-rich fibrillar ECM during early stages of gastrulation in Xenopus laevis (Davidson et al., 2004b). To visualize fibrils dynamics at these stages we turned to using well characterized explants of the frog embryo’s animal cap or marginal zone (figure 1A; (Davidson et al., 2004a)). Animal cap explants contain prospective ectoderm whereas marginal zone explants contain prospective ectoderm and mesoderm. In vivo both ectoderm and mesoderm appose a fibrillar fibronectin matrix. When cultured on artificial rigid substrates (e.g. plastic, glass, or fibronectin-coated glass/plastic) these explants continue to secrete fibronectin which adsorbs onto these non-deformable substrates but do not develop a fibrillar ECM (see supplementary figure S1). In order to visualize matrix remodeling under conditions more representative of deformable substrates in vivo, we cultured either marginal zone or animal cap explants between sheets of agarose (figure 1B) supplemented with 0.1 mg/ml of FN in the media. Tissue explants do not adhere to agarose sheets and develop a complex fibrillar ECM. A key difference between these explants and previous preparations is that we have removed a single layer of epithelial cells to prevent a wound healing response and allow direct observation of forming fibrils using time-lapse laser scanning confocal microscopy (see also (Davidson and Wallingford, 2005)). If the epithelial layer of cells is not removed wound healing begins and the epithelial sheet engulfs exposed deep cells rapidly blocking the view of forming fibrils. The fibrillar ECM that forms under these conditions is confined to the surface of the explant. With the exception of the early to mid gastrula stage animal cap ectoderm that assemble fibrils along a surface that faces the fluid-filled blastocoel, most ECM is assembled at interfaces between two tissues. Fibril assembly on exposed mesodermal tissues in explants takes place without either the endoderm or ectoderm, tissues that would normally face the mesoderm at these interfaces.

Fibrils form and remodel in close association with underlying cells

To visualize both cells and fibronectin fibrils we expressed mRNA encoding a plasma membrane localizing EGFP (GAP43-GFP) in embryos and cultured explants in media containing a Cy3-conjugated monoclonal antibody directed against frog fibronectin (Cy3-4H2). Fibronectin fibrils on mesodermal cells in time-lapse confocal sequences appear as an interconnected meshwork that forms between the cellular tissue and the agarose sheet (figure 1D). Like the assembly of fibrils in vivo, fibrils rarely penetrate between cells (see supplemental figure S1). Both lamellipodia and filopodia can be tracked in scattered-labeled individual mesodermal cells (figure 1E; scattered-labeled cells are surrounded by unlabeled cells). Both cells and the fibrillar matrix assembled at their surfaces move dynamically in this sequence (see supplementary time-lapse movie S1A). Since these time-lapse sequences are collected with a confocal microscope small fibers occasionally “disappear” but are in fact simply moving out of the confocal microscope’s plane-of -focus. Fibrils can transiently disappear because the uneven surface of the explant or the agarose gel provide spaces for fibrils to occasionally escape the plane of focus. Similar fibronectin fibril dynamics are seen at the surface of ectodermal tissues (see supplementary time-lapse movie S1B).

Growth and topological elaboration of fibrillar network

Time-lapse sequences of fibronectin fibrils on both ectoderm and mesoderm reveal that the network undergoes distinct topological changes and that each type of change occurs with its own characteristic timescale. The most obvious change in the network is growth (figure 2A; see supplementary time-lapse movie S2). Over the course of hours the fibrillar matrix grows in density and complexity. Most fibril growth may reflect polymerization rather than simple “thickening” after fibrils are released and shorten in length (see fibril ‘loop’ between arrowheads in figure 2B; see supplementary time-lapse movie S3). Both polymerization and shortening-and-thickening produce a denser fibrillar array, however, they do so on different timescales. Polymerization takes hours to increase the density of fibrils while individual fibrils can shorten and thicken in as little as 10 minutes (compare timescales in figure 2A to 2B). The “connectivity” of the fibrillar network, that is the number and location of connections between fibrils, changes on the timescale of minutes. Single fibrils can move, contact, and anneal to neighboring fibrils during this time (arrow in figure 2C; see supplementary time-lapse movie S4). These new connections then appear to integrate immediately into the mechanical fabric of the matrix (e.g. new fibril links stretch by last frame in figure 2C). The most rapid change in the network occurs in seconds as fibrils stretch and break (arrow indicates intact fibril in figure 2D; see supplementary time-lapse movie S5). The free ends of these broken segments then recoil into globular particles (arrowheads after fibril segment breaks in figure 2D) perhaps through a process of self-annealing. Thus, fibronectin fibrils form a highly dynamic network that is undergoing constant remodeling by a series of topological processes in which the fibrils polymerize, anneal, stretch, and break.

Elaboration of the network is driven through cell contact with fibrils

Movement of the fibrillar network occasionally correlates with cell protrusions. Lamellipodia in these explant preparations extend from one cell under the ventral surface of neighboring cells. The majority of lamellipodial movements occur without apparent contact with fibrils, however, some appear to contact, bind, and drag fibrils over the course of a protrusive duty cycle (supplementary time-lapse movie S6A). Several fibril segments (within yellow circles; figure 3A and C) move from the surface of one cell (hash mark in figure 3B) after contact with a lamellipodia (arrowhead at 6 minutes in figure 3B) and move to the boundary between two cells (between the asterisk and hash marked cells in figure 3B) as the lamellipodia retracts. Fibrils that run along cell-cell boundaries are subject to additional modification as small fibril “spines” frequently form perpendicular to the main fibril (see arrowheads in figure 1B). Additional fibril movements coincide with filopodia (data not shown), however, many fibril movements are not associated with either lamellipodia or filopodia.

In most cases fibril movements cannot be correlated with cell protrusions but instead move toward focal points far from cell-cell boundaries (asterisk; figure 3B; see supplementary time-lapse movie S7; for additional examples see fibril movements in supplementary time-lapse movies S2A, and S2B). These fibrils are gathered to a central, perinuclear location on the ventral cell surface (asterisk in figure 3E, or within yellow circles in figure 3D and F). Fibril gathering focal points are relatively static structures, however, fibrils can join or leave them on the timescale of minutes (e.g. see fibril movements at the end of supplementary time-lapse movie S2). Movements of the fibrillar network, distinct from cellular protrusions, continue even after a dense fibrillar network is assembled (see last 10 minutes of elapsed time in supplementary time-lapse movie S1).

Maintenance of the network depends on F-actin

Since the fibrillar network was so closely associated with the cell surface we wondered whether the cortical actin cytoskeleton was essential to maintain the matrix. Cellular protrusions, as well as other force generating machinery in the cell, require polymerization of the actin cytoskeleton. We inhibited actin polymerization by adding cytochalasin D (CD) to explants that had already assembled a fibrillar network. Twenty minutes after addition of 4 μM CD to cultured explants the fibrillar network collapses to large thick cables, cells in the explant become round and cease protrusive activity but remain attached to one another (figure 4A; see supplementary time-lapse movie S8). These cables remain associated with the exposed cell surface of the explant and are not found deeper within the explant even after cells round up and cell-cell contacts are significantly reduced. When intact fibril networks are incubated in 1 mM of the divalent cation chelator EDTA, the fibrils also collapse to cables, however, these cables are no longer held to the outer surface of the explant, penetrate between cells, and move into the middle of the explant (figure 4B; see supplementary time-lapse movie S9). Thus, the F-actin cytoskeleton assists in maintaining the open network topology but is not required to hold the fibrils to the outer surface of the explant.

Multiple Steps for Fibril Assembly and Remodeling may form the basis of Homeostatic ECM Maintenance

Distinct processes of growth, annealing, stretching, breakage, and elastic recoil shape the ECM that forms on the exposed surface of frog embryonic tissue explants. These observations support a three-step process for the formation of the fibrillar matrix (figure 5A) in which FN-puncta are stretched both across apposing cell-cell boundaries or within the membrane of single cells (Dzamba et al, submitted). These short fibrils can then anneal to one another to form dense contiguous networks that span multiple cells. The incipient network is then remodeled as fibrils are both gathered toward the cell’s perinuclear region on the ventral surface of cells and as fibrils are swept to cell-cell junctions (figure 5B). Thickening of individual fibrils may occur through both polymerization or as released fibrils shorten and thicken (figure 5C). Further remodeling of the network can occur through cycles of annealing-breaking-recoiling (figure 5D). This study is just the first step in describing these apparently chaotic topological changes in the ECM and future studies will be needed to determine the precise role of cell-adhesion and cell-traction in both polymerizing and regulating fibrillar ECM assembly.

The physical coupling of ECM and cells’ actin cytoskeleton that underlies the mechanics, assembly, and remodeling of the ECM may be responsible for the homeostasis of the ECM in both developing embryos and in adult tissues. The concept of ECM homeostasis was first suggested by Harris (1987) to explain the capacity of sponge tissues to maintain an unchanging ECM despite the processes of growth and disturbance. In the current study we report live changes in the fibronectin-ECM as the matrix assembles and remodels in frog embryonic tissue explants. Earlier studies related the effects of molecule-scale strain and force in exposing cryptic sites within FN required for fibril assembly (Schwarzbauer and Sechler, 1999). Thus, our findings support a direct role for cell attachment in assembling and remodeling the fibrillar FN-ECM in tissues as part of a strain-dependent feedback mechanism for the regulation of ECM density and topology (McKeown-Longo and Mosher, 1983; Schwarzbauer and Sechler, 1999).

Our time-lapse sequences of cell and ECM dynamics during morphogenesis should dispel the perception that the extracellular matrix is static during morphogenesis. Recent work has shown that fibronectin fibrils are extensively remodeled during gastrulation in the frog (Davidson et al., 2004b) and chick embryos (Czirok et al., 2004; Zamir et al., 2006) even as cells undergo migration and rearrangement. The timescale of matrix remodeling is nearly the same as the timescale of the cell rearrangements that drive convergence and extension (Keller et al., 2000). Fibronectin fibrils may be remodeled on similar timescales during bone remodeling by osteoblasts (Dallas et al., 2006; Sivakumar et al., 2006) and during branching morphogenesis in the submandibular salivary gland (Sakai et al., 2003; Larsen et al., 2006). In all these examples cells may migrate on, remodel, and move ECM with them. Potentially, information embedded in the ECM such as bound growth factors will be likewise moved or remodeled with consequences for cell signaling and behaviors. Future advances in image processing, co-localization of focal adhesion proteins, and biophysical analyses of the mechanics of the ECM will be needed to understand the cell biology underlying the complex topological changes in the ECM and their role in developing tissues. The interplay between fibrils, which may mechanically couple adjacent cells, and the protrusive activity that drives these cell rearrangements is not well understood but can now be clearly resolved.

Frogs, Eggs, and Explant Preparation

Fertilized frog eggs were obtained using standard methods, dejellied, and cultured in 1/3X Modified Barth’s Solution (Sive et al., 2000) to the desired staged (Nieuwkoop and Faber, 1967). At early gastrula stages, embryos were selected and transfered to explant culture media (Danilchik’s For Amy, DFA; (Sater et al., 1993)) for microsurgery. then cultured for longer periods in DFA.

Explants consisting of deep ectoderm or mesoderm were isolated using hairloops and eyebrow knives. Embryos were manually removed from their vitelline with forceps. Marginal zone explants are prepared as described (Davidson et al., 2004a) with slight modification. The outer, single cell-layered epithelium is removed once the mesendoderm is pulled away from the interface that forms the Cleft of Brachet (see figure 1B in (Davidson et al., 2004a)). The explant is then separated from the remainder of the embryo and transfered to confocal viewing chambers containing DFA supplemented with 0.1 mg / ml bovine plasma fibronectin (Roche Molecular Biochemicals), antibotic/antimycotic (Sigma), and 5 μg / ml Cy3-4H2 (see antibody preparation).

Once cut, explants were cleaned of debris and mounted in chambers for confocal imaging. Chambers were made from rectangular-shaped custom pieces of acrylic milled to provide small volume for culture media. Acrylic chambers were glued to large coverslip fragments using silicone grease (Dow-Corning) and sealed with small square glass coverslips. For experiments where media needed to be added a small corner of the top coverslip was removed leaving a small opening. Explants were transfered to the well along with two thin rectangular sheets of agarose. The explant was then sandwiched between the agarose and held in place by a small coverslip fragment and silicone grease.

Expression of membrane-localized GFP

Synthetic capped RNA encoding a plasma-membrane localizing GFP (GAP43-GFP) was transcribed (Epicentre) from plasmid (Moriyoshi et al., 1996). To obtain embryos expressing GAP43-GFP evenly throughout the explant, embryos were injected 4 times around the marginal zone with a total of 0.2 ng of RNA before the first cell division after fertilization. To obtain scatter-labeled samples, embryos at early cleavage stages of 16 to 128 cells were injected in single blastomeres in the marginal zone with the same equivalent concentration of RNA.

Antibody Isolation and Conjugation

For live imaging of fibronectin fibrils, the mAb 4H2 (a non-function blocking antibody raised against the central cell binding domain of frog fibronectin (Ramos and DeSimone, 1996) was conjugated to the Cy3 fluorophore using an NHS-ester form of Cy3 (FluoroLink; Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Cy3-4H2 was dialyzed against DFA (without BSA) and concentrated with cutoff filters (Centricom YM-30 centrifuge filters; Amicon).

Imaging and Image Processing

Confocal time-lapse sequences were collected using a confocal laser scan head (PCM2000, Nikon, Melville, NY) mounted on an inverted compound microscope (Nikon). High resolution images were acquired with a 1.40 n.a. 60X oil-immersion plan apochromat objective. The GFP signal was excited using the 488 nm line from an argon laser and collected with the 515 nm emission filter. The Cy3 signal was excited using a 543 nm Green HeNe laser and collected with the 565 nm emission filter. Independent neutral density filters were used to reduce the excitation intensities to minimal levels to reduce photodamage to the samples. Furthermore, the confocal pinhole was opened to the “middle” position to collect from a larger z-slab and to increase brightness. Samples were exposed to both excitation wavelengths and the emission signals collected from the same scan. Multi-wavelength, multi-Z-position, and time-lapse sequences were collected and stored as uncompressed animation stacks on a computer (PC) running image acquisition software (Compix Inc., Cranberry Township, PA). These stacks were transfered to a computer (PC) and processed using ImageJ (ImageJ; Wayne Rasband, NIMH; see http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/). Processing was limited to linear adjustments to the lookup table and to one round of smoothening and one round of sharpening.