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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Oct 8.
Published in final edited form as: Adv Healthc Mater. 2015 Jun 10;4(12):1742–1762. doi: 10.1002/adhm.201500168

Table 1. Comparison table and preclinical progress of various 3D printing techniques used to print scaffolds for tissue engineering.

Printing Method Advantages Disadvantages Preclinical progress
Direct 3D printing/Inkjet

  • Versatile in terms of usable materials

  • No support is necessary for overhang or complex structures

  • Potential toxicity (incompletely removed binders)

  • Low mechanical strength prints compared to laser sintering

  • Time Consuming(Post-processing)[93]
 w/electrospinning

  • (Mouse/Cartilage)[159]
Bioplotting

  • Prints viable cells[15, 97]

  • Soft tissue applications[107]

  • Limitation on nozzle size*[98]

    (*Must not be cytotoxic during processing)

  • Requires support structure for printing complex shapes

  • (Rabbit/Trachea)[160]

  • (Rabbit/Cartilage)[161]

  • (Rat/Cartilage)[162]

  • (Mouse/Cartilage)[163]

  • (Mouse/Tooth regeneration)[164]

  • (Mouse/Skin)[165]
Fused Deposition Modeling

  • Low cytotoxicity vs direct 3D printing[108]

  • Relatively inexpensive (printers and materials)[166]

  • Limitation on materials

    (often requires thermoplastics)[109]

  • Materials used are non-biodegradable

  • Requires support structure for overhangs and complex shapes

  • Post-processing may be necessary

  • Low Resolution[166]
Selective Laser Sintering

  • Provides scaffolds with high mechanical strength

  • Powder bed provides support for complex structure

  • Fine resolution[117, 118]

  • Limitation on materials

    (must be shrinkage and heat resistant)[116]

  • Very high temp required(up to 1400°C)[115]

  • Expensive and time consuming(processing and post processing)
Stereolithography

  • Very high resolution[166]

  • Speed of fabrication[129]

  • Smooth surface finish

  • Materials must be photopolymers[173]

  • Expensive (two photon printers)[166]

  • Support system is necessary for overhang and intricate objects.

  • (Rat/Bone)[174]

  • (Rabbit/Trachea)[175]

  • (Pig/Tendon)[176]
Electrospinning

  • Speed of fabrication

  • Cell printing[137]

  • Soft tissue engineering [135]

    Low shear stress (bioelectrospraying)[136]

  • Random orientation of fibers[177]

  • Non-uniform pore sizes[178]

  • High voltage(1-30 kV) requirements[179, 180]

  • (Mouse/biocompatibility)[181, 182]

  • (Rat/Bone)[183, 184]

  • (Rabbit/Vascular tissue)[185]
Indirect 3D Printing

  • Good for prototyping/preproduction

  • Material versatility casting once mold is obtained[186]

  • Requires proprietary waxes for biocompatibility(Wax Printing)[148]

  • Low accuracies/resolution[187]

  • Mold required for casting[188]

  • Long production times

    (mold→cast→processing→product)

  • (Rat/Bone)[189]

  • (Mouse/Tooth regeneration)[190]